Table 1 Socioecological Drivers of Violence Against Women (VAW) and Violence Against Children (VAC) in the Household

Societal Gender Norms (S)

Expectations that men dominate female partners and use aggression to maintain and display dominance

Expectations that adults (both men and women) dominate children

Substance Use (I/C/S)^a

Male battering of female intimate partner when inebriated

Battering of children (usually by man) when inebriated; beating as a form of punishment for child substance use; parental inebriation associated with failure to protect girls from extended family members’ perpetration of sexual abuse

Accumulation of Daily Stressors (I/C)^a

Intimate partner and economic stressors (e.g., management of finances and unemployment); unwillingness to share resources; intimate partner disagreement over resources

Management of work and parenting responsibilities compounded by economic stressors; parents batter children while trying to manage routines; lack of food due to displacement heightens child crying and perceived misbehaving

Behavior Regulation (R/S)

Control of intimate partner’s sexual autonomy and access to activities outside the home; reproductive coercion; perceived deviation from female gender roles (e.g., meal preparation)

Punishment for substance use, disobedience, “talking back”, poor school attendance or performance, and missed curfews; perceived lack of contribution to household tasks; hierarchical familial practices of discipline; children (usually boys) attempt to regulate violent behavior of caregivers